CONCLUSION

Joseph Smith Ill's life was molded by a series of conflicts. His father
blessed him to be his successor, but following his father's death a struggle for
power within the church left Young Joseph in a state of ecclesiastical limbo. His
father declared plural marriage to be a divine principle, but his mother viewed
polygamy with moral revulsion and raised her children to see it in the same light.
Young Joseph revered his father as a martyred prophet, but he remained ignorant
of many of his father's secret teachings and practices until adulthood. Following
his father's death he was caught in the cross-currents of ongoing controversies
between his mother and Brigham Young. Neither inducements nor intimidation
could persuade his mother to join the Mormon hegira to the West. He grew up
among Gentiles and learned to bear insults silently and to value liberality.
Quietly he resolved to do what he could to redeem his father's name from obloquy
by his own good conduct.

His religious development was marked by a series of stops and starts. He
was baptized by his father when about ten years old. At the time of his baptism
he viewed his father as a good man and a prophet. He held tenaciously to this
view throughout his life. He always maintained that if any baptism in the Latter
Day dispensation were efficacious, it was the one he received at the hands of his
prophet-father. When he began exploring his religious options, as a young man, he
rejected affiliation with any organization which would require him to be
rebaptized. Prior to his father's death, he received general instruction in Mormon
beliefs, but he was not privy to his father's secret teachings. After his father's
death, his mother reared him to believe in the Bible and in the efficacy of prayer.
For a variety of reasons, however, she did not give Young Joseph further
instruction as a Latter Day Saint. Her remarriage to L. C. Bidamon, a worldly
man of skeptical bent, had some influence on her oldest son. As he approached
maturity, Young Joseph went through a free-thinking phase and dabbled in
Spiritualism for a few years. He attended the preaching services of various
Protestant denominations, but he found that he could accept neither evangelical
Protestantism's doctrine of hell nor Universalism. A nearly fatal illness when
twenty years old set his mind to serious religious thinking. For years, however, he
remained undecided about his religious course. A series of spiritual experiences
convinced him to trust in divine guidance concerning his ultimate religious course
of action. He therefore rejected appeals from various groups of Latter Day Saints
that he join one or another group, because he felt that he could not act without
having received definite instructions from God. In one of his religious experiences
he was informed that the recently published Mormon doctrine of plural marriage
was wrong and that he should not affiliate with the Utah Church. Finally he felt
guided to affiliate with the small group of anti-polygamous Latter Day Saints
which became known as the Reorganization.

He remained unsettled about his vocation throughout his youth and into
early adulthood. He dreamed of blacksmithing as a youth. He helped around the
family hotel and gardens. He tried shopkeeping and farming. He engaged in
casual labor as it became available. He studied law and later became a justice of
the peace. He was elected to the city council and school board. Finally his
vocational and religious quests were resolved simultaneously when he became
president of the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints.

The Latter Day Saints who formed the early Reorganization held to several
distinctive tenets. They rejected polygamy. They were convinced that the church
in Nauvoo had fallen into iniquity and had been disorganized. They held that-
according to scriptural teaching and prophetic utterance—the presidency of the
church belonged to the seed of Joseph Smith. And they held that the Spirit had
directed them to reorganize the church.

Following a period of consideration Joseph Smith III became convinced that
the Reorganization's doctrinal views were compatible with his own. After
receiving assurance through prayer and spiritual manifestations that God desired
him to affiliate with the Reorganization, he became its president on April 6, 1860
at Amboy, Illinois.

This was the climactic step in his long spiritual and vocational quest. But
it brought him no respite from conflict. Instead it ushered him into a lifelong
conflict with the Mormon Church. It also brought him into unwelcome conflict
with non-Mormons who tended to view all Latter Day Saints as polygamous,
disloyal, and heretical.

Differentiating himself and his church from the Mormons of Utah was one
of his chief objectives as president of the RLDS Church. He was determined to
build a religious home for the scattered Latter Day Saints who rejected the rule
of Brigham Young. In time he succeeded. The Reorganization became the logical
haven for thousands of Saints who initially had followed other factional leaders, or
who had grown disenchanted with Brigham Young's leadership, or who had stood
aloof from all factions after Joseph Smith's death.

Joseph Smith III was determined to live among the Gentiles, as a non-
Mormon Latter Day Saint. This he called a "triangular problem." For practical
reasons, he spent more of his energy attacking the LDS Church than in warring
with Protestantism or Roman Catholicism. There were a number of reasons for
this policy. Geography provides a partial explanation. The Reorganized Church
had its greatest numbers in Illinois, Iowa, and (later) Missouri, whereas the LDS
Church was situated in the relative isolation of the Rocky Mountains. Proximity
and minority status made a certain degree of accomodation with Gentile culture
both prudent and necessary. Practical considerations led Joseph Smith III to
downplay such potentially friction-causing activities as gathering, economic
communitarianism, bloc-voting, and monolithic hierarchical control of church
finances and discipline.

A deeper reason for Joseph Smith Ill's continuing efforts at differentiating
himself and his church from the Mormons of Utah was personal. He bore the
name Joseph Smith. From his early childhood this name had marked him as
someone unique. He frequently endured sneers and epithets from non-Mormons.
If the Mormons of Utah brought the Smith name into disrepute through their
conduct, he was resolved to redeem it through his own. He expressed himself
candidly in a letter to his uncle William Smith:

You must know by this time how absolute has been my self control
and reticence, in all years past, that I might ring out of Mormonism the
good there was in it. My constant endeavor was to get recognition and
standing room, among honorable and good men, for that despized name
and faith, borne by your father and mine, as well as by yourself in those
early days; well, both have been won, and upon principles, not men.¹

He expressed himself along similar lines to his cousin Edson Don Carlos Smith in a
letter urging him to live uprightly. The world, he reminded his cousin, counted
their fathers fools, dupes, or worse. But they were good men. "Well," he
concluded, "let us live, so far as we can so that the world shall respect our
fathers, because they do us."²

Joseph Smith Ill's motives for differentiating himself and his church from
Utah Mormonism were also ethical and religious. Reason, maternal training,
scriptural study, spiritual manifestations, and personal convictions combined to
bring him to the conclusion that the LDS Church was wrong in many of its
teachings and practices. Above all else, he was convinced that polygamy was
wrong.

This lifelong quest for respectability was successful in large measure.
Joseph Smith III became skilled at presenting his case in a variety of forums:
courts, congressional hearings, contacts with high governmental officials, letters
to editors, public speeches, interviews, articles in secular publications, sermons,
and his voluminous work as editor and writer for church publications. He won the
respect of many political leaders and editors. By the time of his death even Anti-
Mormon writers frequently added a caveat to their writings, distinguishing
between the polygamous Mormons of Utah and the monogamous Reorganized
Saints.

During his lengthy presidency of the RLDS Church, the conflict with the
LDS Church hardened into certain clearly defined lines. Many of these
differences were secondary in nature, but they were nevertheless of importance
to members of the two churches in the nineteenth century: different
interpretations of the law of tithing; issues of ecclesiastical freedom (e.g., free
debate at conferences, obedience to counsel, the degree of theological
heterogeneity permitted in the church, freedom to criticize leaders); ordination of
blocks to the priesthood; different attitudes toward federal authority; the
gathering; Brigham Young's Adam-God doctrine; "blood atonement;" and various
differences in ecclesiastical organization.

The two great differences between the LDS and RLDS Churches were
polygamy and succession in the presidency of the church. The distinctive
positions of both churches were established before Joseph Smith III became
president of the RLDS Church. Under his leadership they became even more
clearly defined.

Joseph Smith III shared with all members of the Reorganization the
conviction that polygamy was sinful. But his conviction that his father was
unconnected with its introduction at Nauvoo was not shared by the majority of the
fledgling Reorganization in 1860. Gradually his view of polygamy became
generally accepted in the RLDS Church. The nucleus of older members who felt
that Joseph Smith, Jr. was involved in polygamy gradually gave way to newer and
younger members. These almost universally adopted Joseph Smith Ill's view of the
matter—a view held by numerous members of the RLDS Church to this day. The
prophet's son was determined to prove his father "innocent" of polygamy.

Apologetically this stance made it much easier to proselytize among
Gentiles. It also made theological reconciliation with the LDS Church impossible.
Even after the practice of plural marriage was abandoned by the LDS Church, the
theology enshrined in Section 132 of the LDS Doctrine and Covenants continued to
lie at the heart of the LDS faith: celestial marriage and sealing rites as the sine
qua non for exaltation to godhood. Rejection of plural marriage necessarily
involved the RLDS Church in repudiation of concomitant doctrines: plurality of
gods, eternal progression, eternal families and marriages, esoteric temple rites,
and temple-building.

It is impossible to pinpoint an exact moment when Joseph Smith III
definitely turned his back on these concomitant doctrines and practices—and upon
the theological legacy of Nauvoo. The logic of his position gradually pushed him
in that direction. By the time he moved to Lamoni his position was clear. In
contradistinction to the Mormon Church, which based much of its position on oral
teachings and secret practices privately introduced by Joseph Smith, Jr. in
Nauvoo, Joseph Smith III took his stand on the publicly accepted works of Latter
Day Saint scripture canonized during his father's lifetime. Any doctrines or
practices not found in these works he rejected. It was common during the
lifetime of Brigham Young (and for some years afterwards) for RLDS elders to
contend for "the Books" against their LDS counterparts who contended for "the
living oracles."

Joseph Smith Ill's contention for the Books was multi-faceted. Part of it
was principled and philosophical; part of it was practical and apologetic. On the
one hand there was his fundamental assumption that God was unchanging. From
this basic assumption, Joseph Smith III concluded that God's moral laws could not
change nor could later revelation contradict earlier revelation. God, in his view,
could reveal additional matter, but he could not contradict himself. If polygamy
were condemned as an abomination in the Book of Mormon, no later revelation
could sanctify it. On the other hand, there was an element of pragmatism in his
contention for the Books. During his father's lifetime, additional material had
been canonized from time to time. There was no logical reason why additional
revelations left behind by Joseph Smith, Jr. at his death ought not to be canonized
as had the earlier ones. Early RLDS publications freely quoted from the Civil War
prophecy and the Book of Abraham, neither of which had been canonized during
the prophet's lifetime. Eventually the LDS Church canonized both documents, but
the RLDS Church gradually consigned them to scriptural oblivion. Not canonizing
them was consistent with the idea that the canon of scripture given to Joseph
Smith, Jr. somehow closed at his death. It safeguarded against the admission of
the revelation on celestial marriage into Doctrine and Covenants. But Joseph
Smith III gladly sanctioned publication of the Inspired Translation of the Bible,
which was left by his father in manuscript. Since this occurred early in his career
as president of the church, he may not have been alert to the possible
inconsistencies in such an action. Later he developed the position that additions
could be made to the canon, but that such additions must be approved by the
appropriate quorums of the church. Since the disputed revelations had never been
submitted to the church for approval, they were not church law. Subsequent
endorsement by an LDS conference was of no force, he reasoned, because that
church lacked divine authority.

Joseph Smith Ill's arguments about succession and priesthood authority also
contained both principled and and pragmatic elements. He had been blessed by his
father to succeed to the office of president of the church. From personal
observation of his mother's struggles, he felt that he had no reason to trust
Brigham Young. He sincerely felt that the practice of polygamy—sanctioned by
the leaders of the Utah Church—was wrong and therefore questioned the moral
and spiritual authority of those leaders. Spiritual experiences—both his own and
others'—persuaded him that God willed that he should assume the leadership of
the Reorganization. His initial reluctance to speak of his having been blessed by
his father—despite later Mormon claims to the contrary—was evidence of deep
sincerity on his own part. He was unwilling to be his own witness, and relied on
the testimony of others and the witness of the Spirit. All these elements
stemmed from deep personal conviction.

On another level, the his arguments about succession and authority were a
pragmatic necessity. The Latter Day Saint tradition spoke of one true church. If
the Brighamite teaching of celestial marriage were wrong, then it was necessary
to impeach the authority of those teaching such doctrine. Justification for the
RLDS position was found in the theory that the church was disorganized in
Nauvoo. Additional steps in the argument were the RLDS teaching that the Spirit
guided the early RLDS elders to reorganize the church and to await the coming of
Young Joseph, and the RLDS doctrine of lineal succession.

One of the ironies of Joseph Smith Ill's struggle against the LDS Church
involves lineal succession. The RLDS Church has enshrined the principle of lineal
succession in the presidency of the church. The LDS Church has enshrined the
principle of succession according to seniority in the Quorum of Twelve. Yet the
LDS Church has preserved more of the theological justification for the practice of
lineal succession (belief in pre-existence, coupled with belief in eternal families)
than has the RLDS Church. One church retains the practice but not the
theological rationale; the other retains the theology but not the practice.

The legacy of lineal succession in the presidency, stemming from the
blessing of Joseph Smith III and continued to the present, poses an impending
dilemma for the RLDS Church. The incumbent president, Wallace B. Smith, has
three daughters and no sons. Upon his death or resignation, the church will face
the question of whether or how to perpetuate the practice of lineal succession in
the presidency.

A number of historiographical models have been proposed for the study of
Joseph Smith Ill's career. According to the RLDS "faithful history" model, Joseph
Smith III was God's anointed servant who battled to reclaim the Latter Day Saints
from error and iniquity. This "true church" model undergirds the first four
volumes of the RLDS History of the Church, Joseph Smith Ill's Memoirs, and Inez
Smith Davis' popular The Story of the Church.

Until recently LDS histories have also reflected "true church"
historiographical models. According to the LDS apologists, Joseph Smith III was
the apostate son of an apostate mother. Even as sophisticated a work as B. H.
Roberts' Comprehensive History of the Church is written with a keen eye toward
refuting RLDS apologetic claims.

Alma Blair and others have argued that Joseph Smith III was a "moderate
Mormon." This historiogrophical approach employs a developmental model.
According to this approach, the early Reorganization and Joseph Smith III
struggled for a number of years with problems of theological identity and
administrative and historical perspective. By the mid-1880s these problems had
been resolved. In some cases, this involved changes in positions. The doctrine of
plurality of gods is a case in point. Whereas the "true church" model would be
embarrassed by such episodes, a developmental model takes them as natural.
Blair's particular developmental model finds the resolution of Joseph Smith Ill's
quest for identity in reversion to the Kirtland period of Mormon theology (and
rejection of Nauvoo developments).³

Closely related to this approach is the sect-church model. Here emphasis
is placed on the sociological forces which cause religious institutions to change in
a fairly predictable fashion over the course of time. Sectarian features gradually
give way to churchly ones. Joseph Smith Ill's desire for accomodation with his
Gentile neighbors and his distancing of himself from several doctrines and
practices which gave offense prior to 1844 fit this model very well.⁴

Both of the two preceding models are complimentary and offer valuable
insights into Joseph Smith Ill's career. Two additional models for understanding
the man suggest themselves.

First, there is Joseph Smith III the legalist. Often the prophet's son faced
the Mormon complaint that he was a lawyer. No compliment was intended. Quite
apart from connotations of crooked practices and high fees, there was a certain
amount of "legalism" in Joseph Smith Ill's character, theology, and apologetics.
When approaching the question of polygamy, he reasoned that moral law was
unchangeable. When confronted with evidence that his father had delivered a
revelation sanctioning plural marriage, he reasoned that such a doctrine could not
have been introduced into the church legally. He felt strongly that obedience to
civil law was a duty of every Latter Day Saint; practicing polygamy when civil
law prohibited the same was clearly wrong in his view. He sought to establish the
truth of the RLDS position through litigation in the courts. He repeatedly urged
that the way to solve "the Utah problem" was through fair and uniform
enforcement of federal laws against polygamy. He felt that his whole life would
be evaluated by God at the Judgment, and he trusted that his ethical course would
be rewarded, while that of Mormon polygamists would be condemned. He also
conceived of himself as something of a defense attorney for his father. Mormons
who testified that his father taught or practiced plural marriage were treated as
hostile witnesses and were subjected to rigorous cross-examination. The objective
was to discredit their testimony by demonstrating contradictions. For his own
port, he adopted a public posture similar to a lawyer summarizing his client's
case. No damaging evidence must ever be admitted. He advised one colleague,
when debating, to admit nothing unless proven: "One erroneous admission is more
difficult to dispose of than a dozen assertions unqualified." When his uncle
William was planning to publish a book, he reminded William that he had expended
much energy trying to remove the stigma of polygamy from the memory of Joseph
and Hyrum Smith. Therefore, he suggested, if his uncle were wise, he would "fail
to remember anything contrary to the lofty standard of character at which we
esteem those good men. You can do the cause great good; you con injure it by
injudicious sayings.''⁵

Second, there is Joseph Smith III the tragic figure. His life was molded by
forces outside his own control. He was the son of Joseph Smith, marked by his
father for leadership in the church. Neither Saints nor Gentiles would let him
forget his ancestry. He was the son of Emma Smith, a resolute foe of plural
marriage. Her conflict with Joseph Smith, Jr. over polygamy underlay her later
conflict with Brigham Young and the Twelve. After her husband's death she
resolutely sought to innoculate her children against polygamy. She succeeded.
Latter Day Saints in various factions expected him to "take his place" as he
approached adulthood. But he occupied a position fraught with tension. The
conflict between his paternal and maternal legacies was inescapable. Finally he
resolved the conflict as best he could: he would be a non-polygamous Latter Day
Saint. But this solution yielded no respite from conflict, for now he was embarked
on a lifelong crusade against the LDS Church, headed by many of his father's
closest disciples. Finally he died, weary and full of years. He fulfilled his father's
blessing that he would "live long upon the earth," be a comfort to his mother, and
achieve honor and admiration in the eyes of others. Whether he realized the rest
of the blessing—to possess wisdom and knowledge and understanding—let each
reader decide.