CHAPTER II
THE GREEK APOLOGISTS
Introduction
The works of the Apostolic Fathers were written for the use of Christians. But it soon became apparent that the Church needed to address the outside world as well.
Not only were vile rumors rampant among the populace, not only did the State regard the profession of Christianity as a capital crime against the official cult and the majesty of the emperor, but even the enlightened judgment of scholars and the weight of opinion among the more cultivated classes of society condemned the new religion as an ever increasing threat to Rome's a world-wide dominion.1
In the face of this opposition, a class of Christian teachers arose, "who were in sympathy with the best pagan culture, and conceived the idea of winning the adversary to a juster view of Christianity by literary advances"2 They set out to refute the calumnies spread against the Christians, particularly the notion that the Church posed a threat to the State. Against such charges they set forth the honorable and upright lives of believers, insisting that rather than a threat, Christianity was a bulwark of the welfare of civilization. The absurdities and immorality of paganism were demonstrated, and the truth to be found in Christianity alone was defended. Especially the doctrines of monotheism and the resurrection were the focus of defense. Furthermore, the Apologists argued that philosophy itself--founded upon human reason-- had never attained truth, or, at best, had arrived only at partial truth mixed with error, the "spawn of the demons." Christianity, on the other hand, offers the whole, pure truth, since the Logos, Divine Reason personified, had appeared on earth.3
The apologetic movement began during the reign of Hadrian, when Quadratus addressed an Apology to the Emperor. It continued through the rest of the second century.
Estimates of the number of chiliasts among the Apologists vary just as greatly as the estimates of the number among the Apostolic Fathers. The post-millennialist Charles A. Briggs claims that only Justin Martyr was a chiliast among the Apologists. He asserts that no trace of chiliasm is to be found in the writings of (or in the later references to) Athenagoras, Theophilus, Tatian, Hermias, Melito, Apollinaris of Hierapolis, or the Epistle to Diognetus.4 Kromminga claims that it is a perversion of the facts to claim that the ancient Church, up to ca. 150 A.D., was prevailingly or almost exclusively chiliastic.5 Typically, some premillennial polemicists have employed this same argument from silence to arrive at the opposite conclusion. A. C. Gaebelein argues that it is wrong to infer from the silence of some of the Apologists that they were not millennialists. "Scholars like Tatian, Athenagoras and others," he says, "wrote specially against pagan mythology and philosophy and therefore omitted any reference to the Millennium." He argues that to interpret their silence as meaning that they did not believe in it, "as their colleagues did," is unreasonable.6 Peters adds the following Apologists to his list of chiliasts: Justin Martyr, Melito, Tatian, and Apollinaris of Hierapolis.7 He then draws the conclusion, which has been previously cited, that through the end of the second century, no opposition to premillennialism is to be found, but, rather, that it was held by the leading Fathers of the Church.
We turn, then, to the writings of the Greek Apologists and to the notices of them which have been preserved served from Christian antiquity. In many cases the fragmentary nature of the remains, coupled with the limited, apologetic purposes of the writers, will make an estimation of eschatological views difficult. But these writers are so closely linked to the apostolic era that a thorough examination must be made in each case.
Quadratus
Quadratus is the earliest literary apologist for Christianity of whom we possess any record.8 He addressed an apology to the Emperor Hadrian (117-138), because, says Eusebius, certain wicked men were trying to trouble the Christians. He adds that the apology was still in the hands of many within the Church, and that it displayed Quadratus' "apostolic orthodoxy."9 Unfortunately, the work has perished except for the following fragment recorded by Eusebius:
But the works of our Saviour were always present, for they were genuine:--those that were healed, and those that were raised from the dead, who were seen not only when they were healed and when they were raised, but were also always present; and not merely while the Saviour was on earth, but also after his death, they were alive for quite a while, so that some of them lived even to our day.10
With such sparse data available concerning this apologist, of the sub-apostolic era, no conclusions can be drawn concerning his view of the Millennium.
Aristides of Athens
Aristides, a Christian philosopher of Athens, composed the earliest preserved apology on behalf of the Christians. According to Eusebius, when Hadrian visited Athens in the eighth year of his reign (i.e., 124) Aristides presented his Apology to the emperor, at the same time as Quadratus presented his like work.11 From Jerome's Lives of Illustrious Men 20 comes the additional information that Aristides continued to wear his philosopher's garb after becoming a Christian, and that he was "a most eloquent Athenian philosopher."12
Little more than this was known of Aristides until the discovery and subsequent publication (in 1891) of a complete Syriac version of Aristides' Apology.13 As Quasten notes) the work is limited in scope.14 Chapters I through 14 are devoted to polemics against the false religious beliefs of the Barbarians, Greeks, and Jews. Then, In the concluding three chapters, Aristides briefly sketches an outline of Christian beliefs and manner of upright living. There are a number of passing references to rewards after the resurrection from the dead In the world to come.15 These rewards will be received In the "everlasting kingdom" of the Messiah, where Christ will give to believers "with great glory the promises made concerning them," in that "world to come."16 At the conclusion of the Apology, a direct appeal is addressed to the emperor, urging him to turn to the true God of the Christians, in order to escape condemnation at the "awful judgment which through Jesus the Messiah is destined to come upon the whole human race.17
Dewick finds little that is remarkable in these references to eschatology, except for the material in chapter 16. Here he seizes upon the statement that Christians "strive to be righteous as those who expect to behold their Messiah, and to receive from Him with great glory the promises made concerning them"18 Says Dewick: "The language might seem to imply that the writer expected to see the Second Coming within his own generation; but this is not explicitly stated." However, he rightly adds that this may simply refer to the resurrection of the faithful dead, who will then see Christ. But, since the general tone of Aristides is "primitive," and since Aristides states that the final consummation is being delayed by Christians' prayers, "it is possible that he did expect that the Second Coming was very near at hand."19 Dewick, however, may read too much into the evidence. Aristides' emphasis is upon the coming judgment which all men must face, either to receive rewards in the eternal kingdom of the world to come, or to meet their doom.20
Aristides is always careful to refer to Christ's Kingdom as both future and not of this world, an important point in an apology to a Roman emperor. This is a mark of prudence, and it is dangerous to attempt to press such statements in a search for clues concerning his Millennial position. Nothing is said of the precise order of events in the End Times, and, so, no definite conclusions can be drawn as to Aristides chiliasm or lack thereof.21
Aristo of Pella
Aristo of Pella was an apologist of the middle of the second century.22 Most of what is known concerning his work is preserved in Origen's Against Celsus 4. 52.23 Aristo defended Christianity against Judaism in his no longer extant Disputation between Jason and Papiscus concerning Christ. In this work, Jason (a Jewish Christian, representing the author himself) and Papiscus (an Alexandrian Jew) engage in controversy over Christ; Jason shows from the Old Testament that the prophecies of Christ were fulfilled in Jesus, and his opponent not unskillfully takes up the Jewish viewpoint. From Origen we learn that Celsus attacked the Disputation for containing allegorical interpretations of the Old Testament prophecies. Quasten dates the Disputation ca. 140 and thinks that Alexandria was likely the city of origin, in view of the allegorical exegesis and the character Papiscus having been an Alexandrian Jew.24
It is not, possible to reach any conclusions as to the eschatological views of Aristo on the basis of the fragmentary available evidence. On the one hand, his probable Alexandrian background, his "allegorical" exegesis, and the approval of Origen might be construed as pointing away from a chiliastic position. But on the other hand, the following factors must be considered: Aristo's Jewish background, the possibility that the "allegorical" interpretation to which Celsus took exception may have been typological exegesis, and the fact that the Alexandrians-- especially at this early date were not invariably anti-millenarians.25 Therefore, in view of these conflicting strands of evidence and the fundamental lack of data, it is simply impossible to hazard any estimate of Aristo's position on the Millennium.
Justin Martyr
Justin Martyr was the most important of the second century Greek apologists and one of the noblest personalities of early Christian literature. He was born in Flavia Neapolis (ancient Shechem) in Palestine, of pagan Parents. Having studied various systems of Greek philosophy and finding none of them satisfying, he came at last to the truth in Christianity, finding "this philosophy alone to be safe and profitable."26 The site of his conversion was most likely Ephesus. Henceforth, he devoted his entire life to the defense of Christianity. He traveled about, an itinerant teacher, still clothed in the pallium, the cloak worn by philosophers, to indicate that he had attained to the truth. After extensive journeying, he came to Rome during the reign of Antoninus Pius (138-161), where he founded a school. Along with six companions, Justin was beheaded for his faith ca. 165, while Junius Rusticus (163-167) was prefect. An account of Justin's martyrdom, based on an official court report, survives.27
Justin composed a considerable number of lost works on theological and apologetic themes.28 Two of these which Jerome mentions--Commentary on the Apocalypse and Against all heresies--especially remind us of those two later chiliasts, Irenaeus and Hippolytus. Three authentic works are extant: two apologies and the Dialogue with Trypho.29 Quasten rightly cautions that we do not possess a comprehensive statement of Justin's theological system, and that these three works do not present a well-rounded portrait of Justin, the theologian. In defending the faith against unbelievers, he emphasizes reason far more than he must have done in some of his works addressed to the faithful.30
Justin Martyr's two surviving apologies are both addressed to the Emperor Antoninus Pius. Recent scholarship tends to regard the short Second Apology as a conclusion to the First Apology, being either an appendix or a later addition. Both works were written between 148 and 161. The Second Apology begins with a recent incident, the beheading of three Christians because they confessed their faith. Justin protests such injustices and answers pagan criticisms of Christianity. The only reference to the End Times is the passing statement that there will be a conflagration.31 The First Apology commences with Justin's request that the emperor personally take up the case of the Christians and judge for himself their innocence. The first section of the work (chapters 4-12) is a censure of the official posture towards the Christians, especially the senselessness of punishment for mere profession of Christianity without proof of wrongdoing. He counters the charge of atheism, pointing out that the Christian refusal to venerate the gods is due to the silliness of such worship. Furthermore, their eschatological beliefs and their dread of eternal punishment keep them from wrong-doing and make them excellent citizens. The second section (chapters 13-67) is an apology for the Christian faith, including a description of Christian doctrine and worship, together with the rational and historical bases for subscribing to Christianity32 Here there is a good deal more eschatological material to deal with than in the shorter Second Apology. For instance, in chapter 19, Justin argues philosophically for the resurrection.33 At the same time, he mentions hell as a place of punishment for the wicked.34 In chapter 40, he states that there will be a Day of Judgment, and that Christ will subdue all His enemies underfoot, according to the prophets.35 Later, he argues that the fulfillment of the First Advent prophecies is proof that the prophecies of the Second Advent will just as surely come to pass.36 In the predicted Second Advent, Christ "shall come from heaven with glory, accompanied by His angelic host, when also He shall raise the bodies of all men who have lived," the righteous to immortality and the wicked into everlasting fire.37 But, Justin took pains to reassure the emperor that the Christians posed no threat to Rome:
And when you hear that we look for a kingdom, you suppose, without making inquiry, that we speak of a human kingdom; whereas we speak of that which is with God, as appears also from the confession of their faith made by those who are charged with being Christians, though they know that death is the punishment awarded to him who so confesses. For if we looked for a human kingdom, we should also deny our Christ, that we might not be slain and we should strive to escape detection, that we might obtain what we expect. But since our thoughts are not fixed on the present, we are not concerned when men cut us off; since also death is a debt which must at all events be paid.38
Now, it, is evident from this summary that Justin nowhere alludes to millenarian views in either Apology. Some writers have taken this as an occasion to suggest that Justin, in his apologetic works to the emperor, expressed an amillennial viewpoint, but, when speaking with Trypho, the Jew, quite inconsistently adopted millenarian notions.39 But it is not necessary to suppose such an inconsistency. L. W. Barnard has pointed out that this "argument that there is no mention of the millennium in the two Apologies and that therefore this belief was of no real significance to Justin will hardly bear examination."40 The explanation, says Barnard, lies in the addressee of the Apologies; it would hardly have been tactful to boldly proclaim the collapse of all earthly powers and the coming rule of the Christians under their Lord. A. J Visser attributes Justin's silence to caution rather than tact:
As for a blessed life after death for the adherents of a cult: no state authority could possibly have any objection to such a faith; but a kingdom on earth, under a theocratic Messiah-king, remains a precarious thing, politically spoken, even then when the faithful stress the point that no violence is intended to realize it.41
Though neither Apology makes any allusion to chiliastic views, Justin clearly sets forth such views in the Dialogue with Trypho. The fact that in an Apology intended for heathen eyes, Justin is silent on the subject of the Millennium--indeed, speaking so generally of the resurrection and Judgment that one might conclude that he believed in a single resurrection and judgment had only these writings survived--while he speaks so clearly of the Millennium in the Dialogue, a should serve as a distinct warning to those amillennial apologists who attempt to argue from the silence or generalized language of some others of the Greek Apologists that these writers were amillennialists. As Schaff states the matter, "in the Apologies he [Justin] speaks like a philosopher to philosophers; in the Dialogue as a believer in the Old Testament with a son of Abraham."42 Apologists such as Athenagoras of Athens likewise spoke as philosophers to philosophers; their silence on the Millennium is no proof of amillennialism.
The Dialogue with Trypho is the oldest extant Christian apology against the Jews. It was composed later than the Apologies,43 toward the end of Justin's life. It is a record of a two-day discussion with a learned Jew, perhaps the very Rabbi Tarphon mentioned in the Mishna. Eusebius held that the site of conversation was Ephesus.44 In the Dialogue we find an account of Justin's intellectual development and conversion (chapters 2-8), an explanation of the Christian view of the Old Testament (chapters 9-47), justification for Christian worship of Christ (chapters 48-108), and an argument that Christians represent the New Israel (chapters 109-142).45 The work is not altogether a literary convention; real conversations seem to underlie it. Possibly the exchanges between Justin and Trypho took place at Ephesus during the war of Bar-Chochba (132-135 A.D.), which is mentioned a number of times.46 Now, discussions with a Jew at this time would naturally bring up the question of the future of Jerusalem. In this connection occurs one of the most notable chiliastic passages in ancient Christian literature:
And Trypho to this replied, "I remarked to you sir, that, you are very anxious to be safe in all respects, since you cling to the Scriptures. But tell me, do you really admit that this place, Jerusalem, shall be rebuilt; and do you expect your people to be gathered together and made joyful with Christ and the patriarchs, and the other prophets. . . ? or have you given way, and admitted this in order to have the appearance of worsting us in the controversies?" Then I answered, "I am not so miserable a fellow, Trypho, as to say one thing and think another. I admitted to you formerly, that I and many others are of this opinion, and [believe] that such will take place, as you assuredly are aware; but, on the other hand, I signified to you that many who belong to the pure and pious faith, and are true Christians, think otherwise. Moreover, I pointed out to you that some who are called Christians, but are godless, impious heretics, teach doctrines that are in every way blasphemous, atheistical, and foolish. . For if you have fallen in with some who are called Christians, but do not admit this [truth], and venture to blaspheme the God of Abraham, and the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob} who say there is no resurrection of the dead, and that their souls, when they die, are taken up to heaven; do not imagine that they are Christians, even as one, if he would rightly consider it, would not admit that the Sadducees, or similar sects . . are Jews. . ., but are [only] called Jews and children of Abraham, worshipping God with the lips, as God Himself declared, but the heart was far from Him. But I and others, who are right-minded Christians on all points, are assured that there will be a resurrection of the dead, and a thousand years in Jerusalem, which will then be built, adorned, and enlarged, [as] the prophets Ezekiel and Isaiah and others declare. "For Isaiah spake thus concerning this space of a thousand years; 'For there shall be the new heaven and the new earth, and the former shall not be remembered, or come into their heart; but they shall find joy and gladness in it, which things I create. For, Behold, I make Jerusalem a rejoicing, and My people a Joy; and I shall rejoice over Jerusalem, and be glad over My people. And the voice of weeping shall be no more heard in her, or the voice of crying. And there shall be no more there a person of immature years, or an old man who shall not fulfil his days. For the young man shall be an hundred years old; but the sinner who dies an hundred years old, he shall be accursed. And they shall build houses, and shall themselves inhabit them; and they shall plant vines, and shall themselves eat the produce of them, and drink the wine. They shall not build, and others inhabit; they shall not plant, and others eat. For according to the days of the tree of life shall be the days of my people; the works of their toil shall abound. Mine elect shall not toil fruitlessly, or beget children to be cursed; for they shall be a seed righteous and blessed by the Lord, and their offspring with them. And it shall come to pass, that before they call I will hear; while they are still speaking, I shall say, What is it? Then shall the wolves and the lambs feed together, and the lion shall eat straw like the ox; but the serpent [shall eat] earth as bread. They shall not hurt or maltreat each other on the holy mountain, saith the Lord.' Now we have under- stood that the expression used among these words, 'According to the days of the tree [of life] shall be the days of my people; the works of their toil shall abound,' obscurely predict a thousand years. For as Adam was told that in the day he ate of the tree he would die, we know that he did not complete a thousand years. We have perceived, moreover, that the expression, "The day of the Lord is as a thousand years,' is connected with this subject. And further, there was a certain man with us, whose name was John, one of the apostles of Christ, who prophesied, by a revelation that was made to him, that those who believed in our Christ would dwell a thousand years in Jerusalem; and that thereafter the general, and in short, the eternal resurrection and judgment of all men would likewise take place. Just as our Lord also said, They shall neither marry nor be given in marriage, but shall be equal to the angels, the children of the God of the resurrection.47
In this passage, Justin affirms that Jerusalem shall be rebuilt and inhabited by the saints, together with the Messiah, the patriarchs, and the prophets. He assures Trypho that all Christians who are "right-minded on all points" believe likewise: there shall be a resurrection of the saints, who shall then dwell 1000 years in a rebuilt, adorned, and enlarged Zion, He affirms that the prophecies of the Old Testament concerning the future of Jerusalem will then be fulfilled, especially the prophecy of Isaiah 65 concerning a new heaven and a new earth in which there will be joy, longevity, fruitfulness, peace, and harmony among the animals.